Paradise Lost: Censorship and Hypocrisy Essay

I love movies. I especially adore those films with an artistic, literary quality that is timeless and classical. In my experience, Italian movies seldom fail to evoke such feelings in me, and Cinema Paradiso was no disappointment. This heartwarming story about a little boy’s love affair with movies, and his subsequent coming-of-age in the repressive environment of ecclesiastical censorship and hypocrisy stirred great emotion in me, as I expected it would. The young Toto made me feel his awe as he attempted to see the forbidden film images hidden from him by his friend Alfredo at the behest of the town priest. The issue of censorship ran deep throughout the film. I believe censorship can actually provide a valid function in a community in some circumstances and situations, such as the protection of children from harmful imagery, literature or speech. Pornography, for example, can and should have its availability limited only to consenting adults. Falsely holding oneself out to be someone else, fraud, is also certainly not a protected form of free speech and should be censored. As a staunch civil libertarian, I have always believed that communities should set their own standards on censorship as much as possible. However as Rosenblatt (2002) points out in his persuasive essay about Cinema Paradiso, without the neutral and objective oversight of outsiders – such as the United States Supreme Court – even well-intentioned censorship can become repressive. Even in the movie, little Toto’s friend Alfredo felt that the local priest’s strictures were repressive. He told Toto, â€Å"You leave [the village] or you will never find your life in so narrow-minded a place. † The priest’s attempts to protect the town from movies’ love scenes were presented in a comical manner in the film, and certainly they were ridiculous, but not only for the way the scenes were produced. The censorship struck me as hypocritical and nonsensical if viewed as necessary to protect the morality of the community. For example, very early in the film we see young Toto stealing peeks into Alfredo’s projection booth. The boy sees many of the very scenes he is not supposed to be seeing. Later, he views by candlelight some of the frames the censor/priest demanded Alfredo remove from the films. But Toto does this in full view of his mother who seems more concerned with the fire hazard Toto creates than in his viewing of forbidden imagery. Clearly the priest’s attempts to protect Toto from the sordid scenes were ineffective. In at least one place in Cinema Paradiso, the omitted kiss scene was followed immediately by violent slapstick comedy. The teacher at Toto’s school severely beat and emotionally abused a young man named Boccia because he was poor at math. Toto’s mother physically abused Toto when she discovered he had spent the milk money on movies. In both cases, it seemed that no one had any problem with physical violence, even against children. Frequently in the movie several men in the audience laughed and jeered at the missing love scenes in the movies they were watching, knowing exactly what was missing from the film. It struck me as hypocritical that a community would see fit to strike scenes of love – kissing – from movies (even though everyone knew exactly what was being struck) while having no problem with actual physical violence. Lastly, I found it hypocritical that this town’s people would publicly vilify a family for being nominally â€Å"Stalinist† or â€Å"Communist† while ignoring the actual Stalin-esque repression in their midst. The scene in which the people wanted very much to see the movie playing at the Cinema Paradiso, but were turned away, was a good example of this. The filmmakers clearly wanted to portray the inappropriateness of the town’s hypocritical censorship and repression because they gave us such powerfully symbolic clues. As a result of Alfredo’s defiant act of projecting the movie into the street for the people, he inadvertently started a fire that burned down the old theater and cost him his sight. The man who defied the censorship of the town, symbolized by the refusal of the cinema’s owners to allow people in the street to see the film, and who provided them the vision of the movie (and Toto’s vision of becoming a filmmaker) – lost his vision. And his vision he lost in a fire, an intense symbol of purging, repression, or censorship.

Kara Walker: Artist

Considered one of the respectable and influential contemporary fine artists in United States in this generation, Kara Walker revives historical events.   Her intelligent artworks, which are mostly monochromatic, silhouette in style, suggest tragic sceneries believably happen during antebellum period in the South where sectionalism, racial discrimination, sexism and gender inequality occurred.The Life and Biography of Kara WalkerKara Walker was born on November 26, 1969 in Stockton, California.   She was a member of a black family.   Although she admitted that it was her family who convinced her to show and enhance her own artistic intelligence and talent, she remembers that at a very young age of 2 ½ or 3 years old, she already has the conviction to follow the footsteps of his educated artist father Larry Walker, as she was watching him drawing while sitting on his lap.   Kara Walker received her Bachelor of Fine Arts majoring in Painting and Printmaking at Atlanta College of Art in 1991 and her Masters in Fine Arts at Rhode Island School of Design which she also majors in Painting and Printmaking in 1994.   Currently, she is a member of the faculty in Columbia University where she works as a professor of an MFA program and teaches visual arts.Aside from her numerous art exhibitions, Kara Walker received recognitions as part of her achievements which includes her genius award of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation in 1997 wherein the record shows that she is the youngest recipient of the said genius grant at the age of 27; her representation in Sao Paolo Biennial in Brazil in 2002; and this year’s inclusion of her name as one of the 100 Most Influential People in the World – Entertainment and Artists in Times Magazine.Works and MasterpiecesUnlike other artists who commonly express their feelings, or wander and explore the beauty of life, or transcends the limitation of artistry to go beyond the thin line of natural charac terization and fictional imagery, Kara Walker chose to make focus on the heartbreaking and controversial historical folklore of African American people during pre-American Civil War as her only subject matter, which anyone could speculate her work that has unconsciously come in series.   She is famous for her signature medium, and that is using caricatures or cut-paper silhouette life-sized images adhesively displayed and installed mostly on an entire white-painted wall creating a panoramic nostalgia of her topic.Kara Walker put on view to the public her first ever large masterpiece of a 50 feet long and 13 feet high mural which she called Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as It Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart, in 1994.   After the first hit, she then experimented to have a narrative vignette and a cyclorama.   Her first cyclorama in 1997 entitled Slavery! Slavery! was a 12 feet high and 85 feet long in a 360-degree installation. Also you can read Rhetorical Devices in Night Walker by Brent StaplesEnhancement of her medium is technically improved as she explores different techniques and procedures in her artworks to make them more artistic, attractive, and more pleasurable to the eyes of her audience.   This includes the use of light projections.   The Darkytown Rebellion in 2001, which is a 14 feet high and 37 feet long mural using life-sized black paper cut-outs and overhead light projectors of different colors, demonstrates the involvement of the viewers in the mural as their shadows cast with the characters glued in the wall.   In her latest experimentation, she challenges herself to animate her silhouette black paper cut-out images and make them move with the help of 16mm film, plywood trees, dimensions variable and sounds.   Her success in this stroke is another breakthrough, and the animation project is exhibited in 2004, which she gave the title Testimony: Narrative of a Negress Burdened by Go od Intentions.Although Kara Walker is well-known for having her own style of using silhouette cut-outs, she is also fond of drawing and painting, as this is what she mastered in the University.   One of her colorful painting is entitled Allegory.   This painting is finished in 1996, using the gouache and watercolor on 5.3 feet high and 4.3 feet wide paper.Kara Walker has also a series of drawings with a story behind it.   The one is called Do You Like Creme in Your Coffee and Chocolate in Your Milk?, a 64 pages of paper using watercolor, colored pencil, and graphite.   This is a series of dramatic narration and representation about the emotions and struggles of an artist like her from public views, opinions, and critiques.Another artwork that she created is the large-scale wall text.   The most famous one in 1998 is called Letter from a Black Girl, a collage of typewritten text in 30 index cards, artistically set up as a life-sized mural.ThemesWhile Kara Walker is fascinat ed using the unconventional medium which transcends in different level of artwork, she inculcates the same subject matter of American Pre-Civil War Antebellum South.   Having combining the topics of slavery, violence and sex, drawn from cultural influences that include folklore, cartoons, movies, black memorabilia, Harlequin romance novels and slave narratives, she then come up all those themes in five major categories.   These are racial representation; desire, pleasure and shame; historical agreement between fact, fantasy and fiction; descriptive storytelling or narrative; and humor.R E F E R E N C E SKara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love. 2005. The Art ofKara Walker: A Companion to the Exhibit. 13 Sept. 2007.Kara Walker: The Collection. The Broad Art Froundation. 23 Sept. 2007.Kara Walker. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 23 Sept. 2007. Sterling, Kristin. Visual Arts' Kara Walker Recreates Scenes from Antebellum SouthThrough Life Sized Silhouettes. 2003 . Columbia News: The Public Affairs andRecord Home Page. 23 Sept. 2007.

The Elecdyne Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Elecdyne Company - Case Study Example . In relation to these challenges, the company is aiming at coming up with new strategies in order not only to remain viable, but also to make profit (Ireland, Hoskisson & Hitt 2008). One of the strategies that the company considers to be viable is its expansion internationally through venturing in the EU countries. The countries of choice include Russia, USA, and France. In addressing this, the report will expound on the current and future environmental factors that will impact the affect Elecdyne through the aid of STEEP analytical framework. I chose STEEP analysis because of its simplicity in addition to being general and permitting one to analyse the diverse factors that impact an organization. Apart from STEEP, PEST and SWOT analysis will be used in analysing the selected countries extensively in order to determine the best option for expanding internationally. Griffin argues that competitiveness is the most crucial characteristic of a global market. This assertion is in relatio n to the globalization expansion. This claim aids a company to formulate ways of overcoming environmental challenges. The use of strategic tools as the ones will be expounded in this report will probably aid in achieving this objective. The global industry is estimated to be 5.4% (Nummela 2010) with continuous growth in the coming years. However, the influence of the recent recession has been very significant in electronic industries as well as other industries.

Book Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Book Review - Essay Example Context 1 Globalization as a Problem At the first, the author comes out argumentative towards globalization. The author describes globalization as a problem only because it is something, which is being mismanaged by institutions (Stiglitz). The author arguments that international institutions such as the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank have made poor organizations poorer. It is because the benefit has been transferred to the developed nations and because the institutions have prioritized profits over environmental health, the peoples’ lives in the poor countries have been compromised. The author puts responsibility of mismanagement to the international institutions, which look for the size, the volume of an economy and the power in a respective nation to provide benefits and opportunities. The author actually tries to put a light on the context that globalization is a problem if it gets mismanaged or uncontrolled (Stiglitz). Leading the argument the author comes with an objection that United States, which is largest in economic volume, gets the veto power from the IMF. Similarly, the country being the largest in all economies appoints the head of the World Bank, the organization which deals with the sanctioning up of loans to world’s poor countries. ... Stiglitz settles the argument by describing the implications of Washington Consensus, which is a consensus build up just to weaken the already deprived countries. The author asserts the policies of the Consensus, which declare lending machinery, which is often counterproductive instead of out-bringing for the poor nations. The policies actually favor the bureaucracy, the capitalist regime and the high rise authorities which only fall in the idea of profit maximization (Lopez 10-14). The author explains that mismanagement of globalization is caused by four major practices; high privatization, low investment, low taxes reforms on imports, and high volatility of the foreign capital. The argument of the author extends on the consequences of these practices which have been adopted by the poor nations as proposed by the power block (The World Controlling Economic Machinery). All the countries have got from these practices and policies is that they have gone to more economic instability. It is deprivation of the countries, which they have received from these undermining practices and policies (Stiglitz 5-7). Context 2 Managing Globalization as a Solution The book has provided extensive knowledge on how globalization can become the benefit of the deprived (Lopez). It has explained the propositions of the author that how globalization can be turned to the benefit of the underprivileged world. Balancing out the trend of globalization and its affects is the second context/segment of the book, presenting globalization as a solution if it gets managed in accordance to the improvement of people’s lives (Putterman). Stiglitz proposes certain solutions in regards of globalization and the trend of it. The author talks about the changes and reforms in the globalization

Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry - Research Paper Example Verizon Drops McCann for McGarry The review was a determination of the agencies that BofA would use to propel its image to the public in a positive manner. Therefore, the bank invited all the agencies that handled its advertisement and marketing accounts as well as those that did not handle these accounts. After the review, the bank agreed on having WPP handle its $2 billion global advertisement account and consequently cut its relationship with BBDO that started in 2006. Along with dropping BBDO, the bank consequently dropped the tagline â€Å"Bank of Opportunity† that was a creation of BBDO. However, it is crucial to point out that WPP did not take over the worldwide marketing and advertisement of BofA from a newcomer’s perspective. In this case, WPP took over these roles from the bank as an expansion of its earlier relationship with BofA since it had an existing relationship with the bank as it conducted the bank’s branding responsibilities. The fundamental difference between WPP and BBDO lie on the approach of the holding companies’ pitches. The CEO of Omnicom, whereby BBDO is one of the holding companies, observed this difference. He noted that Omnicom gave its principal agencies, like BBDO, the responsibility of playing the key role in a new business. On the other hand, WPP ensured that the holding company was supported throughout the process of acquiring a new business. In addition, WPP’s holding agencies collaborate while pitching for a new business while BBDO’s approach does not encourage collaboration.

Conventional medicine vs. Modern (such as herbs) & are herbs ethical Research Paper

Conventional medicine vs. Modern (such as herbs) & are herbs ethical - Research Paper Example Thus, it is important to understand the ethical issues raised by the use of unconventional medicines in treatment of various conditions. Conventional Medicine vs. Modern Medicine Traditional medicine is an ancient and culture-oriented medical practice, which was in existence in the human societies before the use of modern science in health. The traditional medicine practice varies widely and they attempt to keep the cultural and societal heritage of different nations. The human community responds to treatment of diseases and maintenance of health through the development of a medical system. Thus, the traditional medicine practice is evident in almost all cultures. The traditional medicine practice is mainly relies on personal experience and conventional use. The benefit of traditional medicine and majority of modern medical treatments have not been assesses using contemporary scientific methods. Extensive accounts of experiences and use from one generation to the other offers some ev idence that traditional medicine is effective. However, there is need for scientific research to offer additional evidence to the safety and effectiveness of the traditional medicines (World Health Organization [WHO], 2000). Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is used by most of the Americans as they pursue health and well-being. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a group of various health care and medical systems, and products currently not regarded as part of the conventional medicine. Complementary medicine is utilized together with conventional medicine. On the other hand, alternative medicine is utilized in place of conventional medicine. CAM practices are divided into different categories such as body-based practices, manipulative practices, mind and body medicine, and natural products (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine [NCCAM], 2011). Herbal Medicines In the category of natural products, there are various minerals, vitamins, herb al medicines (also referred to as botanicals), and other natural products. Of great importance in this study are the herbal medicines. Botanical or herbal medicines indicate some of the earliest attempts to enhance the human condition (NCCAM, 2011). MedlinePlus (2010) defines an herb as part of a plant or a plant used for its flavor, therapeutic, or scent properties. People take herbal medicine products as dietary supplements to improve their health. Most of the herbs have been used for quite a long time because of their claimed health benefits. However, not all herbs have health benefits, some cause health problems, others are not effective and others fail to interact well with other drugs the patient is taking (MedlinePlus, 2010). Are Herbs Ethical? There are volumes of literature that offer examples of patients who have been cured of their diseases and ailments through the use of unconventional therapies such as meditation, herbal therapies, and acupuncture. However, the basis of most of these reports is on poorly managed clinical trials or testimonials. Thus, it has become a big dilemma for the physicians to properly measure the benefit of unconventional therapy for the patients. There are cases where the patient may demand the use of unconventional therapy for his or her condition or for someone they have control over. For instance, a case is given where a mother demanded that the caregivers use â€Å"

CV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

CV - Essay Example I now know that architecture is what I was born to do, and I will pursue this goal wherever it takes me. My educational achievements, along with extracurricular activities, prove that I am a committed and hard-working person in all aspects of my life. I had the privilege of studying at Kingston University in London due to the generosity of the Saudi Arabian government, which gave me a full scholarship. During my training experiences, I was able to get along with my co-workers and learn how to fit into a team. The specific activities that I had the opportunity to perform include model making and sketching. When I received training at Retaj Consulting & Engineering last summer, I interned in the architectural department. Please refer to my resume for more information and do not hesitate to contact me if there is anything that you would like to discuss with me. Thank you for taking the time to consider my application and I look forward to hearing your response

Green benefits of ITS - PRESENTATION Research Paper

Green benefits of ITS - PRESENTATION - Research Paper Example he reduction of emissions but also to the financial support of the communities (Institute for Sustainable Communities, 2010, p.1); however, in the case of failure ITS could cause severe financial losses depending on the size of the relevant plan (Tignor et al. 1999) The studies used in this research paper are based on data of different type, depending on the mode of research employed in each case. High emphasis is given to reports published by governmental and non-governmental organizations operating in this area as these bodies are most likely to have access to critical data in regard to this subject. The advantage of these studies/ reports is that they refer to actual aspects, i.e. forms, benefits and problems, of ITS; in this way, it is easier to check the current performance but also the future risks of these systems. The benefits achieved in Syracuse through the update of the city’s signaling system are, all, related to sustainability (Halkias and Schauer 2004). The specific system is based on a computer application, appropriately tuned for covering the city’s needs in terms of transportation while fuel consumption is kept at low levels, as possible. It should be noted that the above system has been evaluated after 3 years of its establishment, a fact that denotes the need for a particular period of time before checking the effectiveness of such systems. In a study developed by the US Department of Transportation in 2013 the benefits of Automated Signal Systems were explored. The key benefits of these systems are those presented in slide 6. Among these benefits the most important seems to be the following: a) delays due to signaling problems, which represent the 10% of traffic delays, have been decreased, b) travel time can significantly increased in case of problematic signal systems; with automated signal systems the travel time can be reduced even by 10% (US Department of Transportation 2013). It should be noted that the increase of average speed, a

The limits of my language Essay Example for Free

The limits of my language Essay Human language is considered to be an exclusively human mode of communication; although other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, none of these are known to make use of all of the properties that linguists use to define language. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. At the core of theoretical linguistics are the study of language structure and the study of meaning. Edward Sapir and his colleague Benjamin Whorf came up with a hypothesis postulating that a particular languages nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers: that different language patterns yield different patterns of thought. On the basis of this theory we could easily say that community we are born into influences our thinking, our background, education and social interaction. For example, a person born in England would be characterised by different behaviours and same drives as a person born in other country.  Pupils in Poland study quite a lot about patriotism and values. A structure of a Polish school teaching is completely different to English one. Everyone in Poland has to learn Polish language and history until they are 19. Most of books they have to read refer to a hero attitude, death, Poland and its history, justice, anti-Semitism, wars and concentration camps. We are being taught information that will shape us in some way and will help us to answer a question: Am I a patriot? Another subject that Polish students have to learn is religious studies. About 95.8 % Polish people are Catholics today. This is another reason to make teenagers learn religious studies. Some of them choose to not to att end this lesson because they describe themselves as theists, but the majority of them still choose to attend RE to find out more about God and their attitude to our motherland. In my opinion, Polish teaching system differ completely from the English way of teaching youth. English people get to choose subjects they prefer to learn and they are limited with their choice. In Poland, pupils do not get a choice and they have to learn about 15 different subjects to get as great knowledge as its possible. It differs in English schools, because in a typical English College when you decide to do A Levels you are only aloud to do from three to five subjects. It shows that students are under pressure of learning logic points of view and way of thinking. It seems to be better idea of training you people but it doesnt teach them any values. Another factor that shapes us would be our background as it has been said in Saphir-Whorf hypothesis. Personally, I find myself more independent and confident that some English people because Poland is characterised by its industry crisis and this is the reason why such a lot of Poles decide to come to England. Another reason that shaped Polish people in the way they are shaped is a fact that Poland was one of these countries that were damaged the most during World War and World War II. I think that it had some influence on the way Polish people behave as well. Final factor would be the fact that English people interact socially different than Polish people. There are some typical issues showing that Polish would behave in another way that English person. English people try to be polite by saying: Hello, how are you ? to everyone while they are not even interested in a receivers answer. Polish person wouldnt try to make an impression on somebody that they are polite. The form and content of both nationalities say differ as well, and the reason for this, again would be nationality and the community you were born into. To recap, my examples have illustrated that a limited knowledge of language severely limits a persons world. The ones I have presented show that community we are born into shapes us and the way we behave. It makes us other from English people who have to decide on how they are going to behave and what are their values, on their own and without any help. I agree with Saphir Whorf hypothesis and I think that language we speak makes us who we are and what we do.

The rate of photosynthesis in the elodea Essay Example for Free

The rate of photosynthesis in the elodea Essay Put the boiling tube in a beaker surrounded by ice. Ensure the thermometer is standing upright in the beaker.   Note the initial temperature and maintain this throughout the experiment, either by means of adding or reducing the ice content.   Place the electric bench lamp towards the elodea specimen   Allow the elodea specimen to settle for five minutes or so.   On the fifth minute start timing for a further five minutes and count the amount of bubbles observed. Note: The same procedure must be carried out for the other two experiments, only altering the content outside the boiling tube. In order to keep the water temperature at 45o C, it is advised that cool water or some heated water (from the kettle) is added depending on the temperature observed. Prediction: I predict that when the elodea specimen is placed in ice, a few (one or two) oxygen bubbles will be observed, therefore photosynthesis will be limited. When the elodea specimen is placed in water at 45o C, more bubbles will be seen and hence the rate of photosynthesis will increase At room temperature, some bubbles will be seen but much less compared to the 45o C investigation, since the temperature is in between. Results: Ice: Time (minutes). Number of bubbles observed 1 1 2 1 3 3 4 0 5 0 Total: 5 Water maintained at 45o C: Time (minutes) Number of bubbles observed 1 3 2 10 3 12 4 3 5 1 Total: 29 Water at room temperature (tap water): Time (minutes) Number of bubbles observed 1 0 2 2 3 3 4 3 5 3 Total: 11 Discussion: From looking at my results, it appears to be that my prediction is reasonably accurate. As mentioned in my prediction, a few bubbles were observed when the elodea was placed in ice. This is because the cells within the elodea specimen eventually die. This can be explained by the concept of enzymes, which operate best at optimum temperatures. Placing the elodea in a cold environment, such as ice means that the temperature is extremely below the optimum. This inevitable leads to enzyme denaturation and only some bubbles are seen during the first two minutes prior to the denaturation. Consequently, there is some photosynthesis taking place. When the elodea cell is placed in water which is maintained at 45o C, the number of bubbles sighted increase rapidly (particularly in the second and third minutes). Notice for the fourth and the fifth minutes, the number of bubbles observed start to decline. This may well be to the fact that the temperature was not controlled as intended, and possibly exceeded 45o C, thus causing the enzyme to denature. Hence a decrease in photosynthesis is observed. When the elodea specimen is placed in water at room temperature, the number of bubbles observed are more or less the same. This is because the temperature of the water is fairly below the optimum, (which is believed to be 45o C) and therefore the rate of photosynthesis is limited. Evaluation: Despite the results fairly matching the prediction, the method used is rather unreliable. More repeats (i.e. three repeats) could have been put into practice as this would have allowed me to calculate an average and hence raising the reliability of the results. The temperature range is rather limited and so the results would have been more accurate by employing a variety of temperatures. This would have allowed me to pin-point exactly the optimum temperature of the enzyme, which is involved in photolysis. Looking at the results above, there was an incidence where the temperature was not properly controlled (the ice investigation in which 3 bubbles were noted in the third minute). I believe using a water bath would have allowed me to maintain the temperatures more precisely and save time as oppose to using a kettle. I recall whilst doing the experiment that the elodea specimen was placed somewhat close to the window. Light from the sun could have also played an important part of distorting the results because an increase in light intensity also contributes to an increase rate in photosynthesis. Therefore if this experiment is to be carried out again, it would be ideal to make use of the window blinds. Not forgetting to mention that the distance between the bench lamp and the elodea specimen was not fixed, and was varied during each investigation. This might have caused a slight degree of anomaly in the results. Having acknowledged this inconsistency has made me aware of what is required in the actual investigation. It can be argued that counting the number of bubbles can be deceiving and therefore another method should be put into consideration. An alternative way of doing the same experiment more accurately can be achieved by using a photosynthometer. A freshly cut strand of the plant is suspended upside down in a boiling tube. The healthy strand of elodea produces bubbles of oxygen gas when brightly illuminated (i. e. with a bench lamp 10 cm away from the elodea specimen) at different temperatures. The bubbles emerge from the cut end of the stem and are collected in a bulb at the base of the apparatus. From here, the oxygen gas can be drawn into the capillary tube by means of the syringe. The volume of oxygen gas collected in five minutes gives a direct measurement of the rate photosynthesis. Apparatus and Justification: Apparatus Justification of Apparatus x1 Clamp stand (with capillary tube). A lot of apparatus are involved, some of which that need to be held at a constant height above the water bath (i. e. the boiling tube with the elodea specimen). x1 Capillary tube with ruler.   Used to measure the length of the oxygen bubble(s).   Hence the volume of oxygen can be calculated. x1 Boiling tube   The use of a boiling tube is necessary as oppose to a test tube because its large enough to allow the elodea specimen to fit in with ease. x1 Elodea Canadensis specimen (10 cm long)   The elodea specimen is the basis for this investigation.   Allows the hypothesis to be tested. x1 5 ml syringe A 5 ml syringe is necessary to allow oxygen bubbles to be drawn in the capillary tube. No other apparatus can be substituted for this task. x1 30 cm Ruler   Used to measure the length of the elodea specimen, making sure that the length is constant for each investigation. To ensure a fair test. x1 Scalpel Used to cut the elodea specimen to the desired length with precision. x1 Plastic Tile   To aid in cutting the elodea specimen. To prevent any damage to the work bench. x1 Electric bench lamp with 100W filament bulb   Used to ensure a fair test as every investigation will be illuminated by a lamp at a set distance. To ensure the results are not influenced by light intensity but solely the temperature. x1 Thermometer   Used to ensure the temperature of water bath is correct, and hence to promote reliability of results. x1 Stopwatch   Used for timing the investigation for 10 minutes (five minutes for the settling of the elodea specimen and another five minutes for the investigation). x1 Beaker and ice blocks   To be used for the 0o C investigation.   To see if there is any photosynthesis evident at freezing level. Proposed Method: Diagram12: 1. Set up the clamp stand as shown above. 2. Get hold of a plastic tile and a scalpel and cut the elodea specimen at a length of 10 cm. 3. The cut end has to be inserted into the calibrated capillary tube as shown above. 4. Lower the capillary tube into the water bath, ensuring half of the boiling tube (containing the elodea specimen) is immersed in the water. 5. Place the bench lamp 10 cm away from the boiling tube. Ensure the light is directly facing the elodea specimen. 6. After setting all the apparatus up, pull the syringe on top of the capillary tube in order for the water to get into the capillary tube. This removes any air bubbles initially present in the capillary tube. 7. Place the thermometer into the water bath (or beaker in the case of the ice investigation) and turn the light on. The elodea must be allowed to settle for five minutes. 8. Time the investigation for a further five minutes by using a stopwatch. 9. On completion of the five minutes, switch the lamp off and remove the clamp stand along with the rest of the apparatus out of the water bath. 10. Pull the syringe to draw the oxygen bubbles into the capillary tube and measure the length of the bubble(s) simultaneously by making use of the ruler. 11. Note down the length of the bubble(s) on paper. 12. Repeat the same procedure three times for each temperature using the same elodea specimen. 13. Once the three trials are complete, move on to the next temperature. and carry out steps 1 -13 Ice investigation:   Get hold of the elodea specimen and place it in the boiling tube.   Put the boiling tube in a beaker surrounded by ice.   Note the initial temperature and maintain this throughout the experiment, either by means of adding or reducing the ice content.   Follow steps 5-13 above. Note: If an anomalous result is encounter during the duration of the experiment, it is advised to do that particular investigation again. Acknowledgements: 12- Diagram modified from A-Level biology Revised Edition by W D Phillips and T J Chilton, page 69. Analysis of Variables: Independent variable: The independent variable is the variable, which has to be manipulated in order to get the desired results. In this case, the independent variable is the temperature of the water baths. To obtain more accurate results, I have included temperature readings ranging from 0-65o C, in intervals of five. Three readings will be taken for each temperature and compared. Dependent variable: This is the variable which responds to the fixed conditions and which is used to test the hypothesis. In this case, the dependent variable is the volume of oxygen released by the elodea specimen. The length of the oxygen bubble(s) is going to be measured at the end of the five minute interval. This can be used to deduct the volume of oxygen produced by multiplying the length of the bubble(s) by pie, which is then multiplied by 0. 82 Fixed variables: These are variables, which have to be kept constant throughout the experiment in order to obtain accurate results. These variables cannot be manipulated at any time of the experiment. Some of the fixed variables are listed below: The light intensity (distance between the bench lamp and the elodea specimen): This can be kept constant by ensuring the elodea specimen is 10 cm away from the bench lamp. It may well be convenient reassure the distance with a ruler. The preliminary work I did have done has highlighted that 10 cm happens to be an ideal distance for sufficient photosynthesis to be followed and thus reliable results can be obtained. However if the distance between the bench lamp and elodea specimen is shorter than 10 cm, then this will have a major impact on the results. The increase in light intensity shall inevitably results in an increase in the volume of oxygen noted and thus distorting the results. Similarly if the distance is greater than 10 cm, then this decrease in light intensity shall contribute to a decrease in rate of photosynthesis and thence slowing down the rate at which the oxygen bubble(s) are released13. Therefore it is vital that this distance is kept constant throughout the experiment to ensure a fair test. * The number of leaves on the Elodea plant: The number of leaves will be kept constant throughout the whole experiment by using the same elodea specimen. The reason for keeping the same number of leaves is to ensure that the surface area provided by the leaves is the same in each investigation. Having the same number of leaves will provide the same surface area. If the number of leaves were different in each new investigation, then the number of leaves would be the independent variable. The more leaves there are the larger the surface area, and more light energy will be trapped by the leaves and a greater proportion of it will be converted into chemical energy14. Therefore more oxygen will be given off. On the other hand, a fewer amount of leaves shall results in a low yield of oxygen. In both cases, the results will be distorted if not controlled. Acknowledgements: 13- Letts Revise A2 Biology by John Parker, page 26 14- Revise A2 biology by Richard Fosbery and Jennifer Gregory; page 21 Reliability: To obtain more reliable results, three measurements would be taken in the same condition. The reason for this is that if in case, an error was made on the first attempt, the error can be amended and on the second attempt. After doing the experiment, if any of the results are anomalous then the experiment should be repeated. Results obtained can be compared to the previous results to see if there is an agreement. Light from the sun can also play an important part of distorting the results because an increase in light intensity also contributes to an increase rate in photosynthesis. Therefore it would be ideal to make use of the window blinds to promote reliability of results. Temperatures are monitored precisely by the water baths. However it is sometimes observed that the temperature of the water bath goes up or down by a degree or two. The temperature can be maintained by means of adding or removing ice to the water baths. Due to the limited number of water baths, there may well be the case of sharing a water bath to five others. This means five additional bench lamps would have an impact on my results (as light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis). The lamps may also contribute to the water baths getting hotter than required. Therefore it would be wise to carry out the investigation individually. When the apparatus are set up, the syringe (on top of the capillary tube) must be pulled to draw the water into the capillary tube. This will remove any air bubbles initially present in the capillary tube and thus leaving no ambiguity. Results: Table: showing the results I obtained during the investigation Temperature (o C) Length of Oxygen bubble (mm) Volume of Oxygen (mm) Rate of photosynthesis (mm3/min) Average rate of photosynthesis (mm3/min).

Economic Integration in the Globalised World

Economic Integration in the Globalised World An Introduction to the Global Economy Abstract With a view to considering the extent to which an increasingly global economy with more effective economic integration has been achieved, it is necessary for this essay to show an appreciation of the relevance of the principles of globalisation in this regard that have served to effect the way international economic law is developing. On this basis, it is considered to be of particular interest to show and appreciation of the World Trade Organizations position in view of the fact that it has sought to both regulate and enhance international trade relations between developed and developing countries. In addition, it will also be for this essays discussion to look to show a clear understanding of the fundamental issues raised due to the ever increasing levels of international trade between countries including how they should deal with concerns pertaining to this kind of trade. Therefore, this essay will not only deal with the issues of legality and regulation that are linked with the r ecognition of the principle of globalisation with a view to producing what is considered to be a truly global economy, but also provide for an evaluation of traditional understandings of nationality and how they are being dealt with regarding the development of international economic law. Moreover, it will also be shown how international economic law has moved towards dealing with issues of international trade including the prevalence of the principle of free trade and how countries are becoming increasingly intertwined on a commercial level with a view to ensuring consistency between nations. Finally, this essay will seek to conclude with a summary of the key points derived from this discussion with a view to recognising the increasing levels of economic integration achieved in the global economy. Introduction The concept of globalisation describes how regional cultures, societies, and economies have become integrated through an international trade network. Principles in this regard are commonly driven through factors of economic, technological, sociocultural, political, and biological combined although it is also related to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, or popular culture. According to the United Nations Economic Social Commission for Western Asia, globalisation is a broad term that can be defined in a varied manner. However, when the concept of globalisation is used in the context of the economy, the related principles have referred to the barriers to trade being reduced and even removed across national borders to provide for a much greater flow of goods, capital, labour and services. Nevertheless, whilst globalisation is not a new phenomenon, the process, begun at the turn of the late nineteenth century, has seen its effectiveness slowed somewhat steadily from Wor ld War I until the end of the twentieth century. This development arose from the inward-looking policies pursued by many countries to protect numerous industries before globalisation increased rapidly again as relations between countries were made more certain leading to enhanced economic growth. Main Body The process of globalisation is commonly understood to be closely linked to developments in international trade in view of all individual countries need to generate sustainable economic growth to develop and maintain a standard of living for their people derived from the effective recognition of the need for effective economic integration within the global economy. However, the World Trade Organization has only actually been managing the international trade regime as part of the global economy in more contemporary times since the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade served to precede it. The General Agreement on Tariffs Trade was implemented as policy for the regulation of international trade between member states in relation to the regulation of international trade in 1948 amid what were recognised as significant inequalities of a post-colonial nature. As a result, this understanding of the law effectively served to embrace the view that there was a clear need to look to move forwar ds from a regime that was founded upon an agreement that constituted a significant shift in relations between countries regarding matters of multilateral trade within the global economy through effective economic integration. Nevertheless, in what was a move that may serve to emphasise continuity or the minimal nature of what has transpired from agreement to organisation, the World Trade Organization now includes within its scope a Preamble similar to what was found previously within the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade with a view to then better securing the developing worlds growth as part of the global economy. On this basis, it would seem that the World Trade Organization sought to consolidate a trend that begun from the moment that the system of international trade became fixated with non-tariff issues like human rights significance that served to create added pressure for consolidation leading to the need for an overarching institution to be developed that was similar to what the European Communities looked to propose with a Multilateral Trade Organization. However, the reality is that the development of the World Trade Organization arose in the form of a regulatory organisation as a significant response to the economic interdependence GATT had contributed to through the instigation of policies of corporate capitalism despite what have been recognised as non-tariff measures inhibitions. The World Trade Organization was put into place with a view to then looking to provide for the improvement of both the administration and function of the multilateral trading system under the previous remit provided for in this regard by the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade within the global economy through more effective economic integration. This was considered to be particularly true of the position that was achieved in developing and less developed countries so as to then provide for the guarantee of full employment and ‘real economic growth in the long-term for these countries within the global economy. The reason for this is largely because the financial conditions that have come to be recognised as being particularly prevalent in developed countries have improved substantially, whilst developing countries have unfortunately been left some way behind seemingly without awareness and sufficient redress due to the failure to effectively integrate these countries within th e global economy for their benefit. The reason for this is that, according to calculations undertaken by the International Monetary Fund, economies in developing countries will soon account for almost a hundred percent of the growth in levels of output internationally. Therefore, even assuming the United States of America and European economies return to what are their long-term economic growth paths, the International Monetary Fund still expects   developing countries markets will account for at least seventy percent of economic growth in the world until at least 2016. On this basis, in an effort to improve the position of developing countries, the World Trade Organization has looked to create dispute settlement panels for resolving disputes between nations pertaining in issues of international trade. Moreover, the World Trade Organization provides for the strict surveillance of adopted panel reports implementation and also the authorisation to retaliate against those nations tha t fail to accept such rulings with a view to limiting their impact upon the ongoing development of the global economy with effective economic integration. The framework that developed under the World Trade Organization regulatory mechanism sought to provide for the assurance that rules of international trade would then serve to keep up with the ongoing varied nature of the developing world economy. In addition, it was also believed that the World Trade Organization served to put into place the Multilateral and ‘Plurilateral Trade Agreements.These developments then better provided for the resolution of disputes in international trade before they then start by looking to oversee national trade policies and co-operating with other international institutions for the purpose of enhanced economic integration within the global economy.However, the academics that are working in this field of study have looked to embrace the idea moving from a regime previously based upon the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade was a significant achievement for relations with regard to multilateral trade.Therefore, the World Trade Organization arose as an international regulatory body in response to the significant level of economic interdependence General Agreement on Tariffs Trade had successfully contributed to through achievements in relation to matters of corporate capitalism despite their having still been inhibited by many measures labelled as non-tariff like the recognition of human rights norms despite the increasingly global nature of relations between countries. The reason for this it that the use of tariffs in international trade relations was supposed to provide for a means for one countrys problems to then be exported internationally to other countries around the world.Therefore, in an effort to countenance such measures foreign producers have looked to retaliate because, for example, with regards to the United States of Americas car industry it was estimated that the damage that had been caused by the Japanese stood at around $6.2 billion.As a result, the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade and then more latterly the World Trade Organizations development was intended to limit the need to deal with such problems by providing then providing countries involved in international trade with a forum for then being able to air any and all concerns that they may have with regards to problems relating to international trade relations in the making of such policies.Such an understanding of the value of these kinds of international regulatory bodies was then only further emphasised by former US President Harry Truman in an address given at Baylor University when he said that rather than adopting measures that could be considered to be somewhat harmful to others countries would look to negotiate in relation to matters of concern with a view to fairly resolving a dispute.Then, in somewhat similar regard, the then Director of the Office of Economic Affairs in the US, one Harry Hawkins, recognised that when a country suffers to its significant detriment economically, then its people are likely to be more willing to follow anyone who may promise them a better life.On this basis, it has come to be understood that conflicts in relation to matters of international trade are likely to breed a certain level of non-cooperation, suspicion, and bitterness that will not assist the development of effective relations between nations pertaining to principles of globalisation. In spite of this understanding of the importance of trading effectively in the wake of the recognition of the importance of principles of globalisation, although the World Trade Organization is a significant international economic institution its exact nature and scope is still heavily contested. The reason for this is that, with regard to the activities of the World Trade Organization in particular, it is now somewhat unclear as to why an international organisation is needed to be able to oversee countries individual international trade policies when it has been argued that free trade should be selected as a natural response so the unilateral ‘disarmament of trade barriers should occur spontaneously.In addition, the World Trade Organization has also been placed under constant scrutiny supported by the remit of the Atlantic Charter 1941 where it was determined that countries need to endeavour with respect for their existing obligations to further all countries enjoyment of equa l access to world trade and raw materials needed for their economic prosperity. This is because it is believed such an approach will then serve to bring about collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of then being able to secure improved labour standards, economic advancement, and social security.Therefore, since it is arguable that, by resolving one issue, other matters can then also be resolved for the benefit of individual countries so it is arguable the credibility of the World Trade Organization is then closely linked to the effectiveness of its dispute settlement mechanisms.The reason for this is that the World Trade Organizations methods of resolving disputes will be useless without the proper incentives to then back them up so as to guarantee their enforcement as a high priority. On this basis, it would seem that the World Trade Organizations rules in relation to international trade that have been developed have served to underpin the multilateral trading system that countries seek to trade within so that, from 1991, a significant source of disquiet has been the recognition that the World Trade Organizations success was still largely dependent upon national governments co-operation.Nevertheless, those World Trade Organization Member States that have used the World Trade Organizations procedures have been found to be generally satisfied with the system that has been used for strengthening the credibility and predictability of the multilateral trading system to better improve all countries economic positions.However, most World Trade Organization Member States are developing countries with usually neither the financial means nor the expertise to protect their rights so that, even where they receive a favourable report, they have no effective means for enforcing its recommendations.In addition, it is also necessary for World Trade Organization Member States to respect certain principles in relation to the determining of solutions to their disputesso if one of the parties was unwilling to hold consultations this would violate their obligations in relation to forming relationships for bringing about an increase in international trade leading to greater economic growth. By way of illustration, if a party adopts a negotiating position â€Å"without contemplating any modification of it†,this would then serve to violate Articles 4.1 and 4.2 of the World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Understanding.The reason for this is that they fail to account for the opinions of the other party and this would then be considered to be contrary to the overall aims of the dispute settlement procedure. With this in mind, developing countries have sought to bring about the implementation of ‘special rules to then help them with the process of dispute resolutionso as to then better account for their abilities to trade internationally.However, arguably the most significant change has arisen with regards to the introduction of the World Trade Organization in the wake of the previously instigated General Agreement on Tariffs Trade system of international trade regulation that sought to ensure decisions in relation to disputes that are not dependent upon the individual parties economic strength. Nevertheless, the expertise needed to advocate a particular claim before the World Trade Organization is still often lacking due to a fear of the large costs that are involved with seeking appropriate legal advice and the collection of technical, economic, scientific, and other data as supporting evidence for these purposes.In addition, even where such countries will willingly accept the c osts that are involved with seeking appropriate legal advice, developing countries must still look to deal with the enforcement of the decisions of dispute resolution panels. However, although retaliation may not be an effective policy in seeking to resolve issues pertaining to international trade, such a problem is nothing new and neither are the proposed solutions with damages suggested along with joint or collective retaliation as opposed to more unilateral action that could be perceived of as being somewhat negative and antagonistic ultimately in its effects. Problems have, however, arisen from out of the fact that economic powers in the more developed and industrialised world like the United States of America and the United Kingdom have proved to be somewhat unwilling to support the forms of international trade that both developing and less developed countries are forced to use in the policies that they have developed. As has already been stated as part of this essays discussion, free trade is a type of international trading policy that serves to allow international traders to carry out transactions with with one another without then also being concerned about any potential interference from national governments with a view to then deriving mutual benefits from both goods and services that are then traded in keeping with the understanding of comparative advantage. Therefore, the prices that have been recognised in this regard under a policy of free trade are determined as being part of such a policy to be able to then reflect true supply and demand principles that are the sole determinants of resource allocation.This is, however, somewhat different from other international trading policies where goods and services allocation among countries are determined on the basis of the use of more artificial prices that have been derived from protectionist trade policies because of a national governments intervention that only increases the costs involved.Principles of free trades understanding was then only further emphasised arguably by the fact national government interventions generally include tariffs and non-tariff barriers as well as inter-government managed trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement that otherwise restrict free trade principles between countries involved in international trade.This is reflective of the fact, therefore, that most countries conduct some policy of international trade that is at least to some degree protectionist in nature regarding, for example, agricultural subsidi es in particular due to the importance of farmed food. That this stance has proved to be so significant in relation to international trade is marked by the fact that the adoption of a free trade policy may actually serve to increase poverty in a given nation by all too often contravening human rights norms as they are usually understood in the much more developed and industrialised west.Nevertheless, there is still a need to show an understanding of the fact that, historically, the majority of the most prosperous civilisations ever to have existed have involved themselves in some form of free trade policy believing that this was the main reason why many of these civilizations achieved prosperity.For example, academics have recognised that increased trading between countries throughout history was fundamental for achieving economic prosperity in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome amongst othersThe importance of free trade principles were then only further emphasised between the 19th and well into the 20th century for many industrialised stat es now,whilst it was also believed that the adoption of policies of international free trade would serve to promote peace.John Maynard Keynes for one argued that this underpinned his criticism of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 for the damage it had done to the European economy at the end of World War I.This understanding was then only further affirmed for Keynes, after a brief flirtation with protectionism in the early 1930s, when he once again looked to favour principles of free trade combined with internationally coordinated domestic economic policies to promote high levels of employment and international economic institutions. Such an approach was then only further reflected by the fact that â€Å"From 1820 to 1980, the average tariffs on manufacturers in twelve industrial countries ranged from 11 to 32%† whilst â€Å"In the developing world, average tariffs . . . are approximately 34%† to effectively repress the entry of products onto the international market from these countries.However, it has also since come to be believed that the higher tariffs that are utilised by developing countries may be justified because the productivity gap that has been recognised with developed countries is much higher than that which exists between developed countries alone.Therefore, whilst it is arguable that tariffs should serve to enhance infant industries in developing countries in particular (although also in developed countries), these tariffs need to be sufficiently great in scope to be able to then allow goods that are manufactured domestically to compete under the import substitution industrialisatio n theory where an individual nation seeks to reduce its dependence on foreign goods through the production of more goods domestically.At the same time, however, there is a need   to recognise that such a theory has proved somewhat ineffective for more developing countries. The reason for this is that it has long been recognised that export-oriented industrialisation policies correlate with higher economic growth founded upon theory and the observational study of correlations so they then suffer from a number of weaknesses including the size of sample.In addition those factors that are ingrained in socialism have frequently opposed the recognition and use of free trade policies in international trade since they have served to permit workers to then have maximum exploitation. Such a view was then only further supported by the fact that, in a lecture given to the World Trade Organization in 2007, Jagdish Bhagwati recognised that the growing use and development of new forms of innovative technology for the purposes of enhanced communication was likely to place up to 40 million jobs at risk in the US alone within a short period of just twenty years so that there is now a need for more stringent protection for displaced workers and improved systems of education. Loss of opportunities to work is not the only problem, however. This is because international free trade agreements have served to seriously undermine peoples international human right to adequate food when they should be able to seek redress for this under Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, Cultural Rights 1966 as part of an individuals right to seek a sufficient standard of living for both themselves and their family. However, whilst states parties must look to take steps appropriately to guarantee the realisation of this right to food, the implementation of such a right has proved practically somewhat flawed due to the need for the development of an alternative strategy meaning the production and distribution of food should be removed from international trade agreements because of its universal importance to all people. Such a view is then only further emphasised by the fact that academics including Thomas Pogge have recognised that millions of people could have had their lives saved had more developed countries permitted international institutions to satisfy even the most basic idea of fairness in international trade because the World Trade Organizations remit has been slanted with a view to emphasising the interests of richer countries over and above those of the developing world. By way of illustration, the World Trade Organization has permitted more developed countries to be able to maintain higher tariffs against developing countries, whilst h ypocritically requiring them to dismantle their own systems of protectionism regarding the implementation of barriers to international trade. Therefore, although Pogge may claim not to be against the recognition of the importance of inter-related principles of free trade and globalisation, Pogge has complained against the World Trade Organization because of the fact that it fails to open markets involved with international trade enough so that the benefits of free trade have proved to be somewhat limited, whilst they have also been particularly withheld from those who are impoverished living in developing countries. That such a view has arisen is largely derived from the fact that the growing global recognition of free trade principles has served to magnify the recognised complications that are involved with accountability across the corporate divide that clearly distinguishes the position in developed and developing countries. Significant efforts have, however, also been made to enhance free trade systems accountability internationally through (i) participating in international institutions governing trade; (ii) domestic litigation asserting rights against corporations operating in different countries operating abroad; and (iii) the promotion of principles of corporate social responsibility. For example, a number of major interest groups in the are of international trade including the International Labour Rights Forum have sought to implement reforms supranationally to permit greater public participation in international trade institutions like the World Trade Organization to better resolving disputes pertaining to international trade. Moreover, organisations with a more non-governmental scope in this regard have also sought to encourage the World Trade Organization to be more responsive to human rights issues as opposed to just those matters that are specifically involved with international trade through policies of greater consultation and cooperation. However, matters have not been helped by the World Trade Organizations decision to use its discretion regarding whether to accept public interest submissions meaning they are rarely reviewed in the way they should regarding human rights issues although interest groups in this area remain undaunted. The somewhat marginal nature of such efforts have, however, also served to highlight the World Trade Organizations power and insularity, whilst also bringing into sharp relief the problems with how international trade policy has been determined. Efforts that have been made in relation to international law in this area has also sought to promote corporate accountability in developing countries by extending the remit of national legislation such as that which is found in the US in the form of the Alien Tort Statute 2000. As a result, the International Labour Rights Forum has also looked to spearhead a test case of some significance that looked to attack international corporate action on the basis of allegations that the Union Oil Company of California had permitted the Burma government to perpetrate acts of forced labour, torture, and other abuses that serve to contravene international human rights recognition. Nevertheless, labour abuses that transpire that are of a more traditional n ature may not fall within the scope of the universally accepted international law violations that are required by the United States Supreme Court according to its decision in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain. This is because it was recognised by the court that there is a need for any claim that is founded upon the contemporary understanding of the law of nations to rest upon showing an appreciation of norms of international character commonly accepted by the civilised world. As a result, labour groups have looked to more obliquely consider matters related to international human recognition by looking to focus upon allegations of egregious abuse against labour activists in view of the fact that most recent International Labour Rights Forum-led cases have spotlighted the torture and murder of union organisers in Latin American-United States subsidiaries as a particular concern. Free trade is not the only area of concern, however. This is because the United States of America, for one, has traditionally looked to make it clear that it is not a supporter of ‘countertrade involving developing nations broadly considered as being founded upon the exchange in goods without the use of money and with a maximum feasible reduction of social, cultural, political, or personal transaction costs. The reason for this is then only further supported by the fact that the American government generally looks upon the concept ofcountertrade as being contrary to an open, free trading system not really in the best long-term interests of the business community domestically although, as a matter of policy, the government would not oppose domestic companies participation in countertrade arrangements unless they would negatively impact upon national security. This is a particularly important point because it has been recognised that the adoption of such a stance could serve to have more than a little to do with the perceived threat to national security that is not without its foundations. For example, in 2004, an international trade agreement was reached on a five-year co-operation programme between Turkmenistan and Russia, whereby Turkmenistan would supply Russia with unspecified amounts of natural gas in exchange for upgrading its existing Soviet-era weaponry so that the United States of Americas government has long looked to impose trading sanctions on these countries to restrict the flow of imported goods to make countertrade much more difficult. At the same time, however, there is now also a need to look to account for the ongoing effects of the world financial crisis that transpired just a few short years ago since   it is crucial any recovery from the crisis has the same global reach touching all countries and not just those with the least resources that are from developing countries. This is because the ongoing impact of the economic crisis served to affect the state of affairs in developing countries through declining private financial flows, trade, and remittances that have proved detrimental to both their economic and social prosperity. As a result, by the end of 2009, developing countries were believed to have lost incomes that total at least $750 billion between them as a reflection of current failings in relations between nations pertaining to international trade. Such figures are, however, in reality just a slight reflection of the overall problems that have been recognised in developing countries because the cos t of resolving the world financial crisis has come to $11.9 trillion. Additionally, some significant human consequences arose including increasing levels of unemployment, poverty and hunger with an additional 50 million people that are now trapped in a state of absolute poverty that it seems that they will never be able to get out of. This is because speculative nature of companies and financial institutions in the developed world had a significant detrimental impact upon economic prosperity in developing countries because a lot of the problems with financial services still being experienced in the world today are founded on the United States of Americas sub-prime mortgage financial crisis. Matters came to a head in 2007 when Paribas reported it was impossible for it to value some of the securities it had purchased since, collectively, all financial services then felt they did not know enough about the solvency of one another for lending on the inter-bank market as they looked to ce ntral banks to provide the liquidity needed to replace what was no longer available. With a view to then resolving such problems in keeping with principles that have been recognised in relation to matters of globalisation between nations, a key question that needs to be answered is that of how developing countries can look to matters of commerce and financial services for better resolving issues of concern that are derived from the effects of the current global financial crisis. In this regard, it has been recognised that far too many poor countries have been in something tantamount to a state of denial about the effects of the global economic crisis because it has been suggested that developing countries are not well positioned to gain from any efforts made at achieving a global recovery. On this basis, there is a need for a new trade package to be developed to then focus upon preventing protectionism in l Economic Integration in the Globalised World Economic Integration in the Globalised World An Introduction to the Global Economy Abstract With a view to considering the extent to which an increasingly global economy with more effective economic integration has been achieved, it is necessary for this essay to show an appreciation of the relevance of the principles of globalisation in this regard that have served to effect the way international economic law is developing. On this basis, it is considered to be of particular interest to show and appreciation of the World Trade Organizations position in view of the fact that it has sought to both regulate and enhance international trade relations between developed and developing countries. In addition, it will also be for this essays discussion to look to show a clear understanding of the fundamental issues raised due to the ever increasing levels of international trade between countries including how they should deal with concerns pertaining to this kind of trade. Therefore, this essay will not only deal with the issues of legality and regulation that are linked with the r ecognition of the principle of globalisation with a view to producing what is considered to be a truly global economy, but also provide for an evaluation of traditional understandings of nationality and how they are being dealt with regarding the development of international economic law. Moreover, it will also be shown how international economic law has moved towards dealing with issues of international trade including the prevalence of the principle of free trade and how countries are becoming increasingly intertwined on a commercial level with a view to ensuring consistency between nations. Finally, this essay will seek to conclude with a summary of the key points derived from this discussion with a view to recognising the increasing levels of economic integration achieved in the global economy. Introduction The concept of globalisation describes how regional cultures, societies, and economies have become integrated through an international trade network. Principles in this regard are commonly driven through factors of economic, technological, sociocultural, political, and biological combined although it is also related to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, or popular culture. According to the United Nations Economic Social Commission for Western Asia, globalisation is a broad term that can be defined in a varied manner. However, when the concept of globalisation is used in the context of the economy, the related principles have referred to the barriers to trade being reduced and even removed across national borders to provide for a much greater flow of goods, capital, labour and services. Nevertheless, whilst globalisation is not a new phenomenon, the process, begun at the turn of the late nineteenth century, has seen its effectiveness slowed somewhat steadily from Wor ld War I until the end of the twentieth century. This development arose from the inward-looking policies pursued by many countries to protect numerous industries before globalisation increased rapidly again as relations between countries were made more certain leading to enhanced economic growth. Main Body The process of globalisation is commonly understood to be closely linked to developments in international trade in view of all individual countries need to generate sustainable economic growth to develop and maintain a standard of living for their people derived from the effective recognition of the need for effective economic integration within the global economy. However, the World Trade Organization has only actually been managing the international trade regime as part of the global economy in more contemporary times since the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade served to precede it. The General Agreement on Tariffs Trade was implemented as policy for the regulation of international trade between member states in relation to the regulation of international trade in 1948 amid what were recognised as significant inequalities of a post-colonial nature. As a result, this understanding of the law effectively served to embrace the view that there was a clear need to look to move forwar ds from a regime that was founded upon an agreement that constituted a significant shift in relations between countries regarding matters of multilateral trade within the global economy through effective economic integration. Nevertheless, in what was a move that may serve to emphasise continuity or the minimal nature of what has transpired from agreement to organisation, the World Trade Organization now includes within its scope a Preamble similar to what was found previously within the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade with a view to then better securing the developing worlds growth as part of the global economy. On this basis, it would seem that the World Trade Organization sought to consolidate a trend that begun from the moment that the system of international trade became fixated with non-tariff issues like human rights significance that served to create added pressure for consolidation leading to the need for an overarching institution to be developed that was similar to what the European Communities looked to propose with a Multilateral Trade Organization. However, the reality is that the development of the World Trade Organization arose in the form of a regulatory organisation as a significant response to the economic interdependence GATT had contributed to through the instigation of policies of corporate capitalism despite what have been recognised as non-tariff measures inhibitions. The World Trade Organization was put into place with a view to then looking to provide for the improvement of both the administration and function of the multilateral trading system under the previous remit provided for in this regard by the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade within the global economy through more effective economic integration. This was considered to be particularly true of the position that was achieved in developing and less developed countries so as to then provide for the guarantee of full employment and ‘real economic growth in the long-term for these countries within the global economy. The reason for this is largely because the financial conditions that have come to be recognised as being particularly prevalent in developed countries have improved substantially, whilst developing countries have unfortunately been left some way behind seemingly without awareness and sufficient redress due to the failure to effectively integrate these countries within th e global economy for their benefit. The reason for this is that, according to calculations undertaken by the International Monetary Fund, economies in developing countries will soon account for almost a hundred percent of the growth in levels of output internationally. Therefore, even assuming the United States of America and European economies return to what are their long-term economic growth paths, the International Monetary Fund still expects   developing countries markets will account for at least seventy percent of economic growth in the world until at least 2016. On this basis, in an effort to improve the position of developing countries, the World Trade Organization has looked to create dispute settlement panels for resolving disputes between nations pertaining in issues of international trade. Moreover, the World Trade Organization provides for the strict surveillance of adopted panel reports implementation and also the authorisation to retaliate against those nations tha t fail to accept such rulings with a view to limiting their impact upon the ongoing development of the global economy with effective economic integration. The framework that developed under the World Trade Organization regulatory mechanism sought to provide for the assurance that rules of international trade would then serve to keep up with the ongoing varied nature of the developing world economy. In addition, it was also believed that the World Trade Organization served to put into place the Multilateral and ‘Plurilateral Trade Agreements.These developments then better provided for the resolution of disputes in international trade before they then start by looking to oversee national trade policies and co-operating with other international institutions for the purpose of enhanced economic integration within the global economy.However, the academics that are working in this field of study have looked to embrace the idea moving from a regime previously based upon the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade was a significant achievement for relations with regard to multilateral trade.Therefore, the World Trade Organization arose as an international regulatory body in response to the significant level of economic interdependence General Agreement on Tariffs Trade had successfully contributed to through achievements in relation to matters of corporate capitalism despite their having still been inhibited by many measures labelled as non-tariff like the recognition of human rights norms despite the increasingly global nature of relations between countries. The reason for this it that the use of tariffs in international trade relations was supposed to provide for a means for one countrys problems to then be exported internationally to other countries around the world.Therefore, in an effort to countenance such measures foreign producers have looked to retaliate because, for example, with regards to the United States of Americas car industry it was estimated that the damage that had been caused by the Japanese stood at around $6.2 billion.As a result, the General Agreement on Tariffs Trade and then more latterly the World Trade Organizations development was intended to limit the need to deal with such problems by providing then providing countries involved in international trade with a forum for then being able to air any and all concerns that they may have with regards to problems relating to international trade relations in the making of such policies.Such an understanding of the value of these kinds of international regulatory bodies was then only further emphasised by former US President Harry Truman in an address given at Baylor University when he said that rather than adopting measures that could be considered to be somewhat harmful to others countries would look to negotiate in relation to matters of concern with a view to fairly resolving a dispute.Then, in somewhat similar regard, the then Director of the Office of Economic Affairs in the US, one Harry Hawkins, recognised that when a country suffers to its significant detriment economically, then its people are likely to be more willing to follow anyone who may promise them a better life.On this basis, it has come to be understood that conflicts in relation to matters of international trade are likely to breed a certain level of non-cooperation, suspicion, and bitterness that will not assist the development of effective relations between nations pertaining to principles of globalisation. In spite of this understanding of the importance of trading effectively in the wake of the recognition of the importance of principles of globalisation, although the World Trade Organization is a significant international economic institution its exact nature and scope is still heavily contested. The reason for this is that, with regard to the activities of the World Trade Organization in particular, it is now somewhat unclear as to why an international organisation is needed to be able to oversee countries individual international trade policies when it has been argued that free trade should be selected as a natural response so the unilateral ‘disarmament of trade barriers should occur spontaneously.In addition, the World Trade Organization has also been placed under constant scrutiny supported by the remit of the Atlantic Charter 1941 where it was determined that countries need to endeavour with respect for their existing obligations to further all countries enjoyment of equa l access to world trade and raw materials needed for their economic prosperity. This is because it is believed such an approach will then serve to bring about collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of then being able to secure improved labour standards, economic advancement, and social security.Therefore, since it is arguable that, by resolving one issue, other matters can then also be resolved for the benefit of individual countries so it is arguable the credibility of the World Trade Organization is then closely linked to the effectiveness of its dispute settlement mechanisms.The reason for this is that the World Trade Organizations methods of resolving disputes will be useless without the proper incentives to then back them up so as to guarantee their enforcement as a high priority. On this basis, it would seem that the World Trade Organizations rules in relation to international trade that have been developed have served to underpin the multilateral trading system that countries seek to trade within so that, from 1991, a significant source of disquiet has been the recognition that the World Trade Organizations success was still largely dependent upon national governments co-operation.Nevertheless, those World Trade Organization Member States that have used the World Trade Organizations procedures have been found to be generally satisfied with the system that has been used for strengthening the credibility and predictability of the multilateral trading system to better improve all countries economic positions.However, most World Trade Organization Member States are developing countries with usually neither the financial means nor the expertise to protect their rights so that, even where they receive a favourable report, they have no effective means for enforcing its recommendations.In addition, it is also necessary for World Trade Organization Member States to respect certain principles in relation to the determining of solutions to their disputesso if one of the parties was unwilling to hold consultations this would violate their obligations in relation to forming relationships for bringing about an increase in international trade leading to greater economic growth. By way of illustration, if a party adopts a negotiating position â€Å"without contemplating any modification of it†,this would then serve to violate Articles 4.1 and 4.2 of the World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Understanding.The reason for this is that they fail to account for the opinions of the other party and this would then be considered to be contrary to the overall aims of the dispute settlement procedure. With this in mind, developing countries have sought to bring about the implementation of ‘special rules to then help them with the process of dispute resolutionso as to then better account for their abilities to trade internationally.However, arguably the most significant change has arisen with regards to the introduction of the World Trade Organization in the wake of the previously instigated General Agreement on Tariffs Trade system of international trade regulation that sought to ensure decisions in relation to disputes that are not dependent upon the individual parties economic strength. Nevertheless, the expertise needed to advocate a particular claim before the World Trade Organization is still often lacking due to a fear of the large costs that are involved with seeking appropriate legal advice and the collection of technical, economic, scientific, and other data as supporting evidence for these purposes.In addition, even where such countries will willingly accept the c osts that are involved with seeking appropriate legal advice, developing countries must still look to deal with the enforcement of the decisions of dispute resolution panels. However, although retaliation may not be an effective policy in seeking to resolve issues pertaining to international trade, such a problem is nothing new and neither are the proposed solutions with damages suggested along with joint or collective retaliation as opposed to more unilateral action that could be perceived of as being somewhat negative and antagonistic ultimately in its effects. Problems have, however, arisen from out of the fact that economic powers in the more developed and industrialised world like the United States of America and the United Kingdom have proved to be somewhat unwilling to support the forms of international trade that both developing and less developed countries are forced to use in the policies that they have developed. As has already been stated as part of this essays discussion, free trade is a type of international trading policy that serves to allow international traders to carry out transactions with with one another without then also being concerned about any potential interference from national governments with a view to then deriving mutual benefits from both goods and services that are then traded in keeping with the understanding of comparative advantage. Therefore, the prices that have been recognised in this regard under a policy of free trade are determined as being part of such a policy to be able to then reflect true supply and demand principles that are the sole determinants of resource allocation.This is, however, somewhat different from other international trading policies where goods and services allocation among countries are determined on the basis of the use of more artificial prices that have been derived from protectionist trade policies because of a national governments intervention that only increases the costs involved.Principles of free trades understanding was then only further emphasised arguably by the fact national government interventions generally include tariffs and non-tariff barriers as well as inter-government managed trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement that otherwise restrict free trade principles between countries involved in international trade.This is reflective of the fact, therefore, that most countries conduct some policy of international trade that is at least to some degree protectionist in nature regarding, for example, agricultural subsidi es in particular due to the importance of farmed food. That this stance has proved to be so significant in relation to international trade is marked by the fact that the adoption of a free trade policy may actually serve to increase poverty in a given nation by all too often contravening human rights norms as they are usually understood in the much more developed and industrialised west.Nevertheless, there is still a need to show an understanding of the fact that, historically, the majority of the most prosperous civilisations ever to have existed have involved themselves in some form of free trade policy believing that this was the main reason why many of these civilizations achieved prosperity.For example, academics have recognised that increased trading between countries throughout history was fundamental for achieving economic prosperity in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome amongst othersThe importance of free trade principles were then only further emphasised between the 19th and well into the 20th century for many industrialised stat es now,whilst it was also believed that the adoption of policies of international free trade would serve to promote peace.John Maynard Keynes for one argued that this underpinned his criticism of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 for the damage it had done to the European economy at the end of World War I.This understanding was then only further affirmed for Keynes, after a brief flirtation with protectionism in the early 1930s, when he once again looked to favour principles of free trade combined with internationally coordinated domestic economic policies to promote high levels of employment and international economic institutions. Such an approach was then only further reflected by the fact that â€Å"From 1820 to 1980, the average tariffs on manufacturers in twelve industrial countries ranged from 11 to 32%† whilst â€Å"In the developing world, average tariffs . . . are approximately 34%† to effectively repress the entry of products onto the international market from these countries.However, it has also since come to be believed that the higher tariffs that are utilised by developing countries may be justified because the productivity gap that has been recognised with developed countries is much higher than that which exists between developed countries alone.Therefore, whilst it is arguable that tariffs should serve to enhance infant industries in developing countries in particular (although also in developed countries), these tariffs need to be sufficiently great in scope to be able to then allow goods that are manufactured domestically to compete under the import substitution industrialisatio n theory where an individual nation seeks to reduce its dependence on foreign goods through the production of more goods domestically.At the same time, however, there is a need   to recognise that such a theory has proved somewhat ineffective for more developing countries. The reason for this is that it has long been recognised that export-oriented industrialisation policies correlate with higher economic growth founded upon theory and the observational study of correlations so they then suffer from a number of weaknesses including the size of sample.In addition those factors that are ingrained in socialism have frequently opposed the recognition and use of free trade policies in international trade since they have served to permit workers to then have maximum exploitation. Such a view was then only further supported by the fact that, in a lecture given to the World Trade Organization in 2007, Jagdish Bhagwati recognised that the growing use and development of new forms of innovative technology for the purposes of enhanced communication was likely to place up to 40 million jobs at risk in the US alone within a short period of just twenty years so that there is now a need for more stringent protection for displaced workers and improved systems of education. Loss of opportunities to work is not the only problem, however. This is because international free trade agreements have served to seriously undermine peoples international human right to adequate food when they should be able to seek redress for this under Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, Cultural Rights 1966 as part of an individuals right to seek a sufficient standard of living for both themselves and their family. However, whilst states parties must look to take steps appropriately to guarantee the realisation of this right to food, the implementation of such a right has proved practically somewhat flawed due to the need for the development of an alternative strategy meaning the production and distribution of food should be removed from international trade agreements because of its universal importance to all people. Such a view is then only further emphasised by the fact that academics including Thomas Pogge have recognised that millions of people could have had their lives saved had more developed countries permitted international institutions to satisfy even the most basic idea of fairness in international trade because the World Trade Organizations remit has been slanted with a view to emphasising the interests of richer countries over and above those of the developing world. By way of illustration, the World Trade Organization has permitted more developed countries to be able to maintain higher tariffs against developing countries, whilst h ypocritically requiring them to dismantle their own systems of protectionism regarding the implementation of barriers to international trade. Therefore, although Pogge may claim not to be against the recognition of the importance of inter-related principles of free trade and globalisation, Pogge has complained against the World Trade Organization because of the fact that it fails to open markets involved with international trade enough so that the benefits of free trade have proved to be somewhat limited, whilst they have also been particularly withheld from those who are impoverished living in developing countries. That such a view has arisen is largely derived from the fact that the growing global recognition of free trade principles has served to magnify the recognised complications that are involved with accountability across the corporate divide that clearly distinguishes the position in developed and developing countries. Significant efforts have, however, also been made to enhance free trade systems accountability internationally through (i) participating in international institutions governing trade; (ii) domestic litigation asserting rights against corporations operating in different countries operating abroad; and (iii) the promotion of principles of corporate social responsibility. For example, a number of major interest groups in the are of international trade including the International Labour Rights Forum have sought to implement reforms supranationally to permit greater public participation in international trade institutions like the World Trade Organization to better resolving disputes pertaining to international trade. Moreover, organisations with a more non-governmental scope in this regard have also sought to encourage the World Trade Organization to be more responsive to human rights issues as opposed to just those matters that are specifically involved with international trade through policies of greater consultation and cooperation. However, matters have not been helped by the World Trade Organizations decision to use its discretion regarding whether to accept public interest submissions meaning they are rarely reviewed in the way they should regarding human rights issues although interest groups in this area remain undaunted. The somewhat marginal nature of such efforts have, however, also served to highlight the World Trade Organizations power and insularity, whilst also bringing into sharp relief the problems with how international trade policy has been determined. Efforts that have been made in relation to international law in this area has also sought to promote corporate accountability in developing countries by extending the remit of national legislation such as that which is found in the US in the form of the Alien Tort Statute 2000. As a result, the International Labour Rights Forum has also looked to spearhead a test case of some significance that looked to attack international corporate action on the basis of allegations that the Union Oil Company of California had permitted the Burma government to perpetrate acts of forced labour, torture, and other abuses that serve to contravene international human rights recognition. Nevertheless, labour abuses that transpire that are of a more traditional n ature may not fall within the scope of the universally accepted international law violations that are required by the United States Supreme Court according to its decision in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain. This is because it was recognised by the court that there is a need for any claim that is founded upon the contemporary understanding of the law of nations to rest upon showing an appreciation of norms of international character commonly accepted by the civilised world. As a result, labour groups have looked to more obliquely consider matters related to international human recognition by looking to focus upon allegations of egregious abuse against labour activists in view of the fact that most recent International Labour Rights Forum-led cases have spotlighted the torture and murder of union organisers in Latin American-United States subsidiaries as a particular concern. Free trade is not the only area of concern, however. This is because the United States of America, for one, has traditionally looked to make it clear that it is not a supporter of ‘countertrade involving developing nations broadly considered as being founded upon the exchange in goods without the use of money and with a maximum feasible reduction of social, cultural, political, or personal transaction costs. The reason for this is then only further supported by the fact that the American government generally looks upon the concept ofcountertrade as being contrary to an open, free trading system not really in the best long-term interests of the business community domestically although, as a matter of policy, the government would not oppose domestic companies participation in countertrade arrangements unless they would negatively impact upon national security. This is a particularly important point because it has been recognised that the adoption of such a stance could serve to have more than a little to do with the perceived threat to national security that is not without its foundations. For example, in 2004, an international trade agreement was reached on a five-year co-operation programme between Turkmenistan and Russia, whereby Turkmenistan would supply Russia with unspecified amounts of natural gas in exchange for upgrading its existing Soviet-era weaponry so that the United States of Americas government has long looked to impose trading sanctions on these countries to restrict the flow of imported goods to make countertrade much more difficult. At the same time, however, there is now also a need to look to account for the ongoing effects of the world financial crisis that transpired just a few short years ago since   it is crucial any recovery from the crisis has the same global reach touching all countries and not just those with the least resources that are from developing countries. This is because the ongoing impact of the economic crisis served to affect the state of affairs in developing countries through declining private financial flows, trade, and remittances that have proved detrimental to both their economic and social prosperity. As a result, by the end of 2009, developing countries were believed to have lost incomes that total at least $750 billion between them as a reflection of current failings in relations between nations pertaining to international trade. Such figures are, however, in reality just a slight reflection of the overall problems that have been recognised in developing countries because the cos t of resolving the world financial crisis has come to $11.9 trillion. Additionally, some significant human consequences arose including increasing levels of unemployment, poverty and hunger with an additional 50 million people that are now trapped in a state of absolute poverty that it seems that they will never be able to get out of. This is because speculative nature of companies and financial institutions in the developed world had a significant detrimental impact upon economic prosperity in developing countries because a lot of the problems with financial services still being experienced in the world today are founded on the United States of Americas sub-prime mortgage financial crisis. Matters came to a head in 2007 when Paribas reported it was impossible for it to value some of the securities it had purchased since, collectively, all financial services then felt they did not know enough about the solvency of one another for lending on the inter-bank market as they looked to ce ntral banks to provide the liquidity needed to replace what was no longer available. With a view to then resolving such problems in keeping with principles that have been recognised in relation to matters of globalisation between nations, a key question that needs to be answered is that of how developing countries can look to matters of commerce and financial services for better resolving issues of concern that are derived from the effects of the current global financial crisis. In this regard, it has been recognised that far too many poor countries have been in something tantamount to a state of denial about the effects of the global economic crisis because it has been suggested that developing countries are not well positioned to gain from any efforts made at achieving a global recovery. On this basis, there is a need for a new trade package to be developed to then focus upon preventing protectionism in l